Figure 1. The path for humanity from hunger to overnutrition.
| Journal of Food Bioactives, ISSN 2637-8752 print, 2637-8779 online |
| Journal website www.isnff-jfb.com |
Review
Volume 31, September 2025, pages 8-30
Nutritional lipids: an overview of nutritional progress and market trends
Figures
Tables
| Category | Definitions | Similarities | Differences | Typical applications |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Healthy lipids | Lipids promoting health and preventing disease (e.g., MUFAs, PUFAs, MCTs); often overlap with nutritional lipids | Overlap with functional/nutritional lipids; focus on disease prevention and health maintenance | Defined by perceived health effects; often public-oriented term | Heart-healthy oils, weight management, anti-inflammatory diets |
| Nutritional lipids | Lipids essential for human metabolism and health, including fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols, etc. | Include health-supportive fatty acids and compounds; shared sources with functional/healthy lipids | Defined by essentiality and nutritional requirement | Infant formula, dietary supplements, fortified oils, daily nutrition |
| Functional lipids | Lipids providing physiological benefits beyond basic nutrition (e.g., ω-3s, structured lipids, FAHFAs) | Can all be used in foods, supplements, and clinical settings; often overlap in composition and function | Defined by added physiological roles (anti-inflammatory, metabolic benefits) | Functional foods, nutraceuticals, metabolic therapy (e.g., DAG, ω-3s, phytosterols) |
| Bioactive lipids | Lipids with direct biological activity (e.g., DHA, tocopherols, FAHFAs, odd-chain fatty acids). | Overlap with functional/medical lipids in therapeutic potential. | Defined by specific signaling/metabolic roles (e.g., immunomodulation, inflammation resolution). | Precision nutrition, metabolic disease therapy (e.g., obesity), neurological/ immune support. |
| Medical lipids | Lipids specifically designed or applied for medical purposes (e.g., enteral/parenteral emulsions, immune-support lipids) | Can include functional and nutritional lipids depending on formulation goal (e.g., energy, immune modulation) | Defined by targeted clinical use and regulatory context | Enteral/parenteral nutrition, malnutrition treatment, metabolic disorders |
| Fatty acids | Major sources | Nutritional properties |
|---|---|---|
| Acetic acid (C2:0) | Fermented foods, vinegar | SCFA; supports gut health and microbiome |
| Propionic acid (C3:0) | Fermented dairy, gut microbiota | SCFA; may influence lipid metabolism and insulin sensitivity |
| Butyric acid (C4:0) | Butter, gut microbiota | SCFA; fuels colonocytes; anti-inflammatory potential |
| Caproic acid (C6:0) | Goat milk, butterfat | MCFA; quick energy source |
| Caprylic acid (C8:0) | Coconut oil, MCT oil | MCFA; antimicrobial, ketogenic diet applications |
| Capric acid (C10:0) | Coconut oil, palm kernel oil | MCFA; easily absorbed and oxidized |
| Lauric acid (C12:0) | Coconut oil, palm kernel oil | MCFA; antimicrobial, used in MCT products |
| Myristic acid (C14:0) | Butter, coconut oil, dairy fat | Raises LDL cholesterol more than stearic acid |
| Pentadecanoic acid (C15:0) | Dairy fat, butter, ruminant meat | Emerging biomarker of dairy fat intake; potential metabolic benefits |
| Palmitic acid (C16:0) | Palm oil, meat, dairy fat | Raises LDL cholesterol; energy source |
| Heptadecanoic acid (C17:0) | Dairy fat, ruminant meat | Associated with lower risk of metabolic disease |
| Stearic acid (C18:0) | Animal fat, cocoa butter, shea butter | Neutral effect on blood lipids; energy source |
| Lignoceric acid (C24:0) | Peanut oil, canola oil | VLCFA; membrane lipid component |
| Palmitoleic acid (C16:1 n-7) | Macadamia oil, sea buckthorn oil | Lipid mediator; may improve insulin sensitivity, anti-inflammatory |
| Oleic acid (C18:1 n-9) | Olive oil, avocado oil | Improves lipid profile; supports heart health |
| Nervonic acid (C24:1 n-9) | Fish, seed oils, human brain tissue | VLCFA; important in nerve cell membranes |
| Linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6) | Sunflower oil, corn oil, soybean oil | Essential FA; supports skin, inflammation modulation |
| CLA | Ruminant fats (beef, dairy), grass-fed animal products | Anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory; potential in weight management |
| Alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3) | Flaxseed, chia seeds, walnuts | EFA; supports heart and brain function |
| Arachidonic acid (C20:4 n-6) | Meat, eggs, organ meats | Precursor to eicosanoids; pro-inflammatory in excess |
| EPA (C20:5 n-3) | Fatty fish, fish oil, algae oil | Anti-inflammatory; supports cardiovascular and brain health |
| DPA (C22:5 n-3) | Fish oil, marine sources | Intermediate ω-3; supports DHA synthesis |
| DHA (C22:6 n-3) | Fatty fish, fish oil, breast milk | Crucial for brain and eye development; anti-inflammatory |
| BCFAs | Dairy, ruminant fat, some fermented foods | Influence gut microbiota and metabolic health; emerging interest |
| FAHFAs | Adipose tissue, fermented foods, milk, rice bran oil | Anti-inflammatory, glucose-regulating; potential therapeutic lipokines |
| Oils and fats | Overall nutritional characteristics | Key contributing factors | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Olive oil | Cardioprotective, rich in MUFA, antioxidants | High oleic acid, polyphenols, squalene, tocopherols | Farhan et al., 2023 |
| Coconut oil | High in SFA, supports quick energy, antimicrobial | High lauric acid, caprylic/capric acids (MCTs) | Jayawardena et al., 2021 |
| Palm oil | Mixed profile; SFA and MUFA, stable for cooking | Palmitic acid, tocotrienols, β-carotene | Zio et al., 2025 |
| Sunflower oil | Rich in ω-6 PUFA, may promote inflammation if unbalanced | Linoleic acid, vitamin E | Zio et al., 2025 |
| Soybean oil | Rich in PUFA (ω-6, ω-3), contains phytosterols | Linoleic + alpha-linolenic acids, phytosterols | Zio et al., 2025 |
| Flaxseed Oil | High in ALA (ω-3), anti-inflammatory, unstable to heat | Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), lignans | Nattagh-Eshtivani et al., 2025 |
| Fish oil | High EPA/DHA; supports heart and brain health | EPA, DHA, fat-soluble vitamins (A, D) | Kalkan et al., 2025 |
| Butter | Contains fat-soluble vitamins, SFA; energy-rich | Butyric acid, vitamins A/D/K2, CLA | Gunstone et al., 2007 |
| Lard | High in SFA; used in cooking, flavor enhancer | Palmitic and stearic acid, cholesterol | Gunstone et al., 2007 |
| Canola oil | Low in SFA, high in ω-3 and MUFA; heart healthy | Alpha-linolenic acid, oleic acid, low SFA | Zio et al., 2025 |
| Avocado oil | Rich in MUFA and antioxidants; supports lipid profile | Oleic acid, lutein, vitamin E | Zio et al., 2025 |
| Sesame oil | Contains lignans and MUFA; stable to heat | Sesamin, sesamol, MUFA/PUFA | Zio et al., 2025 |
| Algal oil | Rich in DHA; sustainable source for vegans | DHA, ω-3 fatty acids, no contaminants | Gunstone et al., 2007 |
| Shea butter | Rich in stearic acid, tocopherols; skin and metabolic benefits | Stearic acid, triterpenes, tocopherols | Zio et al., 2025 |
| High oleic soybean oil | Stable at high heat, heart-healthy MUFA profile | High oleic acid (>70%), tocopherols, low linoleic | Zio et al., 2025 |
| High oleic rapeseed oil | Very low in SFA, high in oleic acid, good for frying | Oleic acid, plant sterols, low saturated fat | Zio et al., 2025 |
| High oleic peanut oil | Heat-stable, heart-healthy profile with MUFA dominance | Oleic acid, resveratrol, vitamin E | Zio et al., 2025 |
| Camellia oil | High MUFA, similar to olive oil, antioxidant-rich | Oleic acid, squalene, natural antioxidants | Gao et al., 2024a |
| Rice bran oil | Rich in gamma-oryzanol, phytosterols, and vitamin E | Oryzanol, tocopherols, phytosterols | Sahini and Mutegoa, 2023 |
| Wheat germ oil | Extremely high in vitamin E, supports antioxidant defense | Alpha-tocopherol, octacosanol, unsaturated fatty acids | Zio et al., 2025 |
| Linseed oil | High ALA content, supports heart and brain function | ALA (ω-3), lignans, antioxidants | Nattagh-Eshtivani et al., 2025 |
| Name | Production methods | Nutritional characteristics | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Structured triglycerides (MLM-type) | Enzymatic interesterification of TAGs | Tailored digestion and absorption; metabolic efficiency | Mu and Porsgaard, 2005 |
| MCT | Esterification | Quick energy | Wang et al., 2022 |
| MLCT (medium- and long-chain triglycerides) | Blending or interesterification of MCTs with LCTs | Fast and sustained energy; supports metabolic flexibility | Xu et al., 2024 |
| SL emulsions for medical nutrition | Design of lipid emulsions with tailored fatty acid composition | Improved tolerance and energy delivery in parenteral nutrition | Zhu and Li, 2013 |
| Structolipid | Emulsified structured lipids designed for parenteral nutrition | Enhanced delivery in clinical nutrition; well-tolerated | Zhu and Li, 2013 |
| OPO-type triacylglycerol (sn-2 palmitate) | Specific sn-2 palmitate incorporation via enzymatic interesterification | Supports fat and calcium absorption; mimics breast milk fat | Wei et al., 2024 |
| Benefat (Salatrim) | Short and long chain acyl groups on TAG backbone via interesterification | Reduced calorie fat; limited absorption of short chains | Zam, 2020 |
| Caprenin | Caprylic, capric, and behenic acid esterified to glycerol | Lower calorie lipid; limited digestibility; alternative fat substitute | Zam, 2020 |
| Impact (Nestlé) | Formulated lipid blend enriched with immunonutrients | Supports immune function and recovery in clinical settings | Zam, 2020 |
| Name | Source | Typical functional properties |
|---|---|---|
| Phosphatidylcholine (PC) | Egg yolk, soybeans, sunflower lecithin | Cell membrane integrity, liver health, emulsification |
| Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) | Soybeans, egg yolk, marine sources | Membrane curvature, fusion, involved in autophagy |
| Phosphatidylinositol (PI) | Soy lecithin, brain tissue | Cell signaling, membrane anchoring of proteins |
| Phosphatidic acid (PA) | Biosynthetic intermediate, soy lecithin | Signaling lipid precursor, membrane curvature regulator |
| Phosphatidylserine (PS) | Soy lecithin, bovine brain, krill | Supports cognitive function, stress regulation |
| Sphingomyelin (SM) | Milk fat globule membrane, brain tissue | Myelin sheath component, brain and nerve function |
| Structured PC (e.g., DHA-PC) | Marine phospholipids, krill oil | Improves brain delivery of DHA, neuroprotective |
| Structured PE (e.g., EPA-PE) | Fish roe, enzymatically modified lecithin | Anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular support |
| Structured PS (e.g., ω-3 PS) | Enzymatically enriched soy or krill PS | Cognitive and anti-stress properties, better bioavailability |
| Structured SM (e.g., LA-SM) | Modified dairy lipids or synthetic | Supports neuronal function, experimental applications |
| Nutrients | Major oils | Typical functional properties | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin E | Wheat germ oil, sunflower oil, rice bran oil | Antioxidant, supports skin and immune function | Atkinson et al., 2008 |
| Vitamin K1 | Soybean oil, canola oil, olive oil | Blood clotting regulation, bone health | Sakwit et al., 2025 |
| Carotenoids | Palm oil, red palm oil, corn oil | Provitamin A (β-carotene), antioxidant, eye health | Gholipour-Varnami et al., 2025 |
| Phytosterols | Corn oil, sunflower oil, rice bran oil | Cholesterol-lowering, cardiovascular benefits | Moreau et al., 2018 |
| Squalene | Olive oil, amaranth oil, shark liver oil | Antioxidant, skin health, potential anti-aging | Cheng et al., 2024 |
| Polyphenols | Extra virgin olive oil, virgin canola oil | Anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular and metabolic support | Zhang et al., 2025b |
| Chlorophylls | Olive oil, cold pressed grapeseed oil | Antioxidant, may influence oxidative stability of oils | Yang et al., 2024 |
| γ-Oryzanol | Rice bran oil | Antioxidant, cholesterol-lowering, anti-inflammatory | Dewan et al., 2023 |
| Sesamin and sesamol | Sesame oil | Antioxidant, blood pressure regulation, hepatoprotective | Dossou et al., 2023 |
| Triterpenes | Shea butter, olive oil, avocado oil | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, potential anticancer effects | Sharma et al., 2018 |
| Tocotrienols | Palm oil, rice bran oil | Antioxidant, neuroprotective, supports lipid metabolism | Jiang, 2024b |
| Product Name | Main compositions | Nutritional features | Typical applications | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Extra virgin olive oil | Oleic acid >70%, phenolics | Cardiovascular protection, antioxidant | Mediterranean diet, salad dressing | Farhan et al., 2023 |
| Fish oil | EPA, DHA | Anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, triglyceride-lowering | Capsules, child DHA supplements | Kalkan et al., 2025 |
| Flaxseed oil | ALA | Plant-based ω-3 source | Cold foods, nutrition powder additive | Nattagh-Eshtivani et al., 2025 |
| MCT oil | C8:0, C10:0 triglycerides | Rapid energy, improved fat absorption | Enteral nutrition, sports supplements | Wang et al., 2022 |
| MLCT oil | C8–C12 and C16–C18 mixed triglycerides | Dual-phase energy release | Diabetic foods, functional oil | Wang et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2024 |
| DAG oil | Mainly 1,3-diacylglycerol | Lower fat accumulation, insulin sensitivity | Weight control oils, diabetic nutrition | Ma et al., 2022a |
| OPO/OPL (human milk fat substitute) | sn-2 palmitic acid structured triglycerides | Enhanced calcium absorption, stool softening | Infant formula | Wei et al., 2024 |
| Algal DHA oil | DHA | Vegan source, heavy metal-free | Infant formula, vegan supplements | Kunj et al., 2025 |
| Plant sterol ester oil | Beta-sitosterol esters | Cholesterol-lowering | Functional oils, heart health drinks | Moreau et al., 2018 |
| Rice bran oil | Oleic acid, oryzanol, sterols | Antioxidant, lipid regulation | Cooking oil, functional nutrition | Sahini and Mutegoa, 2023 |
| Wheat germ oil | Alpha-tocopherol, LA, ALA | Strong antioxidant, skin health | Nutritional oil, cosmetics | Zio et al., 2025 |
| Coconut oil | Lauric acid (C12:0) | Antimicrobial, fast energy | Baking, plant-based foods | Jayawardena et al., 2021 |
| Phosphatidylserine-enriched oil | Soy or egg-derived PS | Cognitive support, stress reduction | Brain health products | Chen et al., 2023 |
| Parenteral lipid emulsions | Soy oil, MCT, fish oil emulsions | IV energy and EFAs | Clinical nutrition, surgery recovery | Zhu and Li, 2013 |
| Human milk fat blend | Palm, canola, coconut oil blends | Mimics human milk fatty acid profile | Infant formula fat base | Berger et al., 2000 |
| Phospholipids | PC, PE, PI, PA, sphingomyelin | Metabolic effects, delivery | Emulsifier, supplements | Ahmad and Xu, 2015 |