J Food Bioact

Journal of Food Bioactives, ISSN 2637-8752 print, 2637-8779 online

Journal website www.isnff-jfb.com

Review

Volume 31, September 2025, pages 31-40

Encapsulation strategies for dietary chlorogenic acid: advances in delivery systems and functional applications

Figure 1. The bioactivity and potential application of CGA by Figdraw (ID: AUAYOc77fd).

**Table 1.** Nanoparticles for CGA encapsulation and application
Carrier System	Preparation Method	Surface Modification	Size	Effects	Advantages	Ref.
PVA/γ-PGA Nanofiber Mats	Electrospinning	/	119 nm	Reduced burst & extended release	82% vs 36% CGA release after 72 h (10% γ-PGA)	(Sandoval-Herrera et al., 2021)
PPCNPs	Nanoprecipitation	/	211.62–429.79 nm	∼7.75% higher in vitro bioaccessibility	Improved digestion stability and antioxidant capacity	(Liang et al., 2024)
CGA-SMEDDS	Self-microemulsification	/	16.37 nm	2.5× oral bioavailability	Oral bioavailability increased to 249.4% vs suspension	(Chen et al., 2017)
Q[7]@2CGA NPs	Host–guest inclusion	/	100nm	Improved release stability	∼70% CGA released steadily over 5 days	(Jiang et al., 2024)
BBR/CGA NPs	Self-assembly	/	360.6 nm	Improved bioavailability	S. aureus inhibition 87.94% vs 59.05% (free); MRSA: 88.10% vs 46.28%	(Fu et al., 2024)
SA-Apo-CGA NPs	Co-encapsulation	/	156.6 nm	Improved bioavailability and GI release control	CGA UV retention: 96.50% vs 77.79%; slower release in GI environment	(Zhang et al., 2023)
CS/RL/CGA NPs	Ionic crosslinking	/	190 nm	CGA fixation in RL and CS	Lower CGA migration and slower release vs F/CGA indicate good fixation	(Ma et al., 2024)
CAGO	Intermolecular interactions	/	/	Prolonged CGA release	CGA release duration >103 h; beyond CGA’s pharmacokinetic half-life	(Barahuie et al., 2017)
TGN-CGA@SeNCs	Selenium nanoparticle base	TGN peptide surface modification	58.06 nm	Improved GI stability	CGA degradation under pH 8: 47.83% vs 74.22% for free CGA	(Li et al., 2023)
AgNPs-CGA-BSA	Silver nanoparticle synthesis	BSA surface modification	96 nm	Antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer effects	DPPH IC50: 91.72 µg/mL vs 94.03 µg/mL (free CGA); enhanced bioactivity	(Roy et al., 2022)
CGA@MIL-125-NH2	MOF synthesis + adsorption	/	226–653 nm	Improved aqueous stability	At pH 8, CGA@MOF retained >85% after 7 days vs <10% for free CGA; sustained release	(Rincón et al., 2024)

Table 1. Nanoparticles for CGA encapsulation and application

Carrier System

Preparation Method

Surface Modification

Size

Effects

Advantages

Ref.

PVA/γ-PGA Nanofiber Mats

Electrospinning

119 nm

Reduced burst & extended release

82% vs 36% CGA release after 72 h (10% γ-PGA)

(Sandoval-Herrera et al., 2021)

PPCNPs

Nanoprecipitation

211.62–429.79 nm

∼7.75% higher in vitro bioaccessibility

Improved digestion stability and antioxidant capacity

(Liang et al., 2024)

CGA-SMEDDS

Self-microemulsification

16.37 nm

2.5× oral bioavailability

Oral bioavailability increased to 249.4% vs suspension

(Chen et al., 2017)

Q[7]@2CGA NPs

Host–guest inclusion

100nm

Improved release stability

∼70% CGA released steadily over 5 days

(Jiang et al., 2024)

BBR/CGA NPs

Self-assembly

360.6 nm

Improved bioavailability

S. aureus inhibition 87.94% vs 59.05% (free); MRSA: 88.10% vs 46.28%

(Fu et al., 2024)

SA-Apo-CGA NPs

Co-encapsulation

156.6 nm

Improved bioavailability and GI release control

CGA UV retention: 96.50% vs 77.79%; slower release in GI environment

(Zhang et al., 2023)

CS/RL/CGA NPs

Ionic crosslinking

190 nm

CGA fixation in RL and CS

Lower CGA migration and slower release vs F/CGA indicate good fixation

(Ma et al., 2024)

CAGO

Intermolecular interactions

Prolonged CGA release

CGA release duration >103 h; beyond CGA’s pharmacokinetic half-life

(Barahuie et al., 2017)

TGN-CGA@SeNCs

Selenium nanoparticle base

TGN peptide surface modification

58.06 nm

Improved GI stability

CGA degradation under pH 8: 47.83% vs 74.22% for free CGA

(Li et al., 2023)

AgNPs-CGA-BSA

Silver nanoparticle synthesis

BSA surface modification

96 nm

Antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer effects

DPPH IC50: 91.72 µg/mL vs 94.03 µg/mL (free CGA); enhanced bioactivity

(Roy et al., 2022)

CGA@MIL-125-NH2

MOF synthesis + adsorption

226–653 nm

Improved aqueous stability

At pH 8, CGA@MOF retained >85% after 7 days vs <10% for free CGA; sustained release

(Rincón et al., 2024)

**Table 2.** Micelles for CGA encapsulation and application
Carrier System	Composition/Structure	Size	Release Behavior	Enhancement on CGA	In Vivo/Therapeutic Effects	Ref.
PLGA-b-CGA/PLGA-b-CGA–MTX	Electrospinning	90–110 nm	Stable at pH 7.4; fast dual release at pH 5.8 with esterase	Prevents premature CGA leakage; pH/enzyme-triggered release; improves inflammation targeting	Suppressed joint swelling, delayed cartilage erosion in arthritis model	(Vyawahare et al., 2024)
CGA-PLGA@PVP	CGA covalently linked to PLGA; surface PVP-modified	154.4 ± 19.3 nm	Sustained CGA release: ∼56% at 72 h; ∼65% at 132 h	Enhanced solubility, colloidal stability, and prolonged CGA retention in tissue	Reduced gingival inflammation and bone loss in periodontitis model	(Li et al., 2022a)
CGA-loaded PVA/PLGA NPs (F2)	Electrosprayed PVA/PLGA loaded with CGA	454.36 ± 36.74 nm	Initial burst: 29.46%; Cumulative: 97.42%	Enhanced antiviral potency (↓IC ₅₀), prolonged release, higher tissue accumulation	Effective against HCoV-229E, MERS-CoV, and P. aeruginosa in lung infection model	(Saleh et al., 2023)

Table 2. Micelles for CGA encapsulation and application

Carrier System

Composition/Structure

Size

Release Behavior

Enhancement on CGA

In Vivo/Therapeutic Effects

Ref.

PLGA-b-CGA/PLGA-b-CGA–MTX

Electrospinning

90–110 nm

Stable at pH 7.4; fast dual release at pH 5.8 with esterase

Prevents premature CGA leakage; pH/enzyme-triggered release; improves inflammation targeting

Suppressed joint swelling, delayed cartilage erosion in arthritis model

(Vyawahare et al., 2024)

CGA-PLGA@PVP

CGA covalently linked to PLGA; surface PVP-modified

154.4 ± 19.3 nm

Sustained CGA release: ∼56% at 72 h; ∼65% at 132 h

Enhanced solubility, colloidal stability, and prolonged CGA retention in tissue

Reduced gingival inflammation and bone loss in periodontitis model

(Li et al., 2022a)

CGA-loaded PVA/PLGA NPs (F2)

Electrosprayed PVA/PLGA loaded with CGA

454.36 ± 36.74 nm

Initial burst: 29.46%; Cumulative: 97.42%

Enhanced antiviral potency (↓IC ₅₀), prolonged release, higher tissue accumulation

Effective against HCoV-229E, MERS-CoV, and P. aeruginosa in lung infection model

(Saleh et al., 2023)

**Table 3.** Hydrogels for CGA encapsulation and application
Hydrogel System	Key Mechanism	Enhancement vs. Free CGA	Target Application	Ref.
Dual pH/ROS-responsive hydrogel with ZIF-8@CGA	ZIF-8 stabilization; oxidative and acidic stimulus-triggered release	↑ Thermal stability, ↑ on-demand release, ↑ wound healing via M1 polarization	Diabetic wound healing	(Wang et al., 2024)
Enteric-coated chitosan–carrageenan CGA hydrogel beads	Colon-specific pH-triggered release; mucoadhesion	↑ GI stability, ↑ mucosal retention, ∼95% sustained release at colonic pH	Ulcerative colitis	(Harwansh et al., 2025)
Nanophytovesicle-loaded hydrogel	Nanoencapsulation improves skin permeation and antioxidant retention	↑ Skin permeation (2.2×), ↑ antioxidant persistence, ↑ in vivo wound healing	Topical wound therapy	(Trivedi and Puranik, 2023)
Self-assembling CGA hydrogel dressing	Self-assembly enables structural integrity and controlled release	↑ Anti-inflammatory effect, ↑ collagen deposition, 69% sustained release at 24h	Skin wound healing	(Huang et al., 2023)

Table 3. Hydrogels for CGA encapsulation and application

Hydrogel System

Key Mechanism

Enhancement vs. Free CGA

Target Application

Ref.

Dual pH/ROS-responsive hydrogel with ZIF-8@CGA

ZIF-8 stabilization; oxidative and acidic stimulus-triggered release

↑ Thermal stability, ↑ on-demand release, ↑ wound healing via M1 polarization

Diabetic wound healing

(Wang et al., 2024)

Enteric-coated chitosan–carrageenan CGA hydrogel beads

Colon-specific pH-triggered release; mucoadhesion

↑ GI stability, ↑ mucosal retention, ∼95% sustained release at colonic pH

Ulcerative colitis

(Harwansh et al., 2025)

Nanophytovesicle-loaded hydrogel

Nanoencapsulation improves skin permeation and antioxidant retention

↑ Skin permeation (2.2×), ↑ antioxidant persistence, ↑ in vivo wound healing

Topical wound therapy

(Trivedi and Puranik, 2023)

Self-assembling CGA hydrogel dressing

Self-assembly enables structural integrity and controlled release

↑ Anti-inflammatory effect, ↑ collagen deposition, 69% sustained release at 24h

Skin wound healing

(Huang et al., 2023)

**Table 4.** Liposomes for CGA encapsulation and application
Formulation Name	Composition & Features	Target/Model	CGA Enhancement	Therapeutic Outcome	Ref.
Man-PEG-Lipo	PEGylated liposomes functionalized with mannose for TAM targeting	Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), glioblastoma	Increased TAM targeting; reduced clearance; immune activation	Inhibited GBM growth via M2→M1 polarization	(Ye et al., 2020)
CPPL	PEGylated liposomes based on CGA–phospholipid complex	Systemic tumor model	Sustained plasma CGA levels (>200 ng/mL at 24h); 4-day dosing interval; improved stability	Reduced injection frequency; maintained anti-tumor efficacy	(Zhang et al., 2021a)
CGA-DOX-SAL	CGA + Doxorubicin co-loaded liposomes with SA-ODA surface modification	Melanoma	Sustained CGA release (60.56% at 24h); controlled dual drug release	Enhanced tumor accumulation and anti-melanoma effect	(Zhu et al., 2024)
CAL	CGA-loaded liposomes using cholesterol and phosphatidylcholine	Oral delivery (pharmacokinetics)	Extended circulation; 1.29× increase in oral bioavailability	Improved antioxidant activity and systemic exposure	(Feng et al., 2016)
CGA–SPL (Soy-liposomes)	Liposomes loaded with sea fennel extract (CGA-rich) using soy phosphatidylcholine	Simulated GI digestion	Protected CGA from pH/enzymatic degradation; retained structural integrity during digestion	Enhanced GI stability → potential for nutraceutical or oral formulations	(Alemán et al., 2022)

Table 4. Liposomes for CGA encapsulation and application

Formulation Name

Composition & Features

Target/Model

CGA Enhancement

Therapeutic Outcome

Ref.

Man-PEG-Lipo

PEGylated liposomes functionalized with mannose for TAM targeting

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), glioblastoma

Increased TAM targeting; reduced clearance; immune activation

Inhibited GBM growth via M2→M1 polarization

(Ye et al., 2020)

CPPL

PEGylated liposomes based on CGA–phospholipid complex

Systemic tumor model

Sustained plasma CGA levels (>200 ng/mL at 24h); 4-day dosing interval; improved stability

Reduced injection frequency; maintained anti-tumor efficacy

(Zhang et al., 2021a)

CGA-DOX-SAL

CGA + Doxorubicin co-loaded liposomes with SA-ODA surface modification

Melanoma

Sustained CGA release (60.56% at 24h); controlled dual drug release

Enhanced tumor accumulation and anti-melanoma effect

(Zhu et al., 2024)

CAL

CGA-loaded liposomes using cholesterol and phosphatidylcholine

Oral delivery (pharmacokinetics)

Extended circulation; 1.29× increase in oral bioavailability

Improved antioxidant activity and systemic exposure

(Feng et al., 2016)

CGA–SPL (Soy-liposomes)

Liposomes loaded with sea fennel extract (CGA-rich) using soy phosphatidylcholine

Simulated GI digestion

Protected CGA from pH/enzymatic degradation; retained structural integrity during digestion

Enhanced GI stability → potential for nutraceutical or oral formulations

(Alemán et al., 2022)