J Food Bioact

Journal of Food Bioactives, ISSN 2637-8752 print, 2637-8779 online

Journal website www.isnff-jfb.com

Review

Volume 29, March 2025, pages 29-37

Progress in research on flavor compounds in Gastrodia elata

Figure 1. Structure of main compound associated with the horse-urine odor in Gastrodia elata.

Figure 2. Structures of the nine most studied parishin-type compounds.

**Table 1.** Volatile Chemical Components of *G. elata*
No.	Category	Example Compounds	Chemical Formula	Odor/Flavor Description	References
1	Aldehydes	Nonanal	C₉H₁₈O	Greasy fragrance	(Sun et al., 2022)
2	Hexanal	C₆H₁₂O	Floral, fruity fragrance	(Sun et al., 2022)
3	Heptanal	C₇H₁₄O	–	(Sun et al., 2022)
4	Hexadecanal	C₁₆H₃₂O	Cardboard-like odor	(Huang and Li, 2018)
5	Benzaldehyde	C₇H₆O	–	(Sun et al., 2022)
6	Phenylacetaldehyde	C₈H₈O	Hyacinth-like aroma	(Wang,et al.,2025; Sun et al., 2022)
7	2-Methylbutanal	C₅H₁₀O	Cocoa, almond-like odor	(Sun et al., 2022)
8		3-Methylbutanal	C₅H₁₀O	Chocolate, peach, and apple fragrances	(Li et al., 2025; Ma et al.,2024)
9	3-Methylthiopropionaldehyde	C₄H₈OS	Pungent, irritating odor	(Li et al., 2025)
10	Alcohols	Campesterol	C₂₈H₄₈O	–	(Zhan et al., 2016)
11	β-Sitosterol	C₂₉H₅₀O	–	(ChP, 2020)
12	Hexanol	C₆H₁₄O	–	(Sun et al., 2022)
13	Alcohols	Butanol	C₄H₁₀O	–	(Sun et al., 2022)
14	1-Octen-3-ol	C₈H₁₆O	–	(Duan,et al., 2023)
15	Terpinen-4-ol	C₁₀H₁₈O	–	(Duan,et al., 2023)
16	Phenethyl alcohol	C₈H₁₀O	Honey-like aroma	(Tan et al., 2025)
17	Isoamyl alcohol	C₅H₁₂O	Nail polish and greasy odor	(Tan et al., 2025)
18	Esters	Methyl palmitate	C₁₇H₃₄O	Waxy, fatty, iris-like odor	(Sun et al., 2022)
19	Ethyl palmitate	C₁₈H₃₆O₂	–	(Ma et al., 2024)
20		Ethyl linoleate	C₁₉H₃₄O₂	–	(Ma et al., 2024)
21	Acids	Acetic acid	C₂H₄O₂	–	(Han et al., 2018)
22	Hexanoic acid	C₆H₁₂O₂	Sweaty odor	(Han et al., 2018)
23	Nonanoic acid	C₉H₁₈O₂	–	(Han et al., 2018)
24	n-Hexadecanoic acid	C₁₆H₃₂O₂	–	(Ma et al., 2024)
25	1-Methoxyethyl hexadecanoate	C₁₉H₃₈O	–	(Zhan et al., 2016)
26	Linolenic acid	C₁₈H₃₀O₂	–	(Han et al., 2018)
27	Linoleic acid	C₁₈H₃₂O₂	–	(Zhan et al., 2016)
28	Acids	Palmitic acid	C₁₆H₃₂O₂	–	(Zhan et al., 2016)
29	Linoleic acid	C₁₈H₃₂O₂	Mild fatty odor	(Huang and Li, 2018)
30	Phenols	2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol	C₁₄H₂₂O	Phenolic odor	(Huang and Li, 2018)
31	4-Methylphenol	C₇H₈O	Narcissus, acacia, and mimosa-like fragrances	(Sun et al., 2022;)
32		p-Cresol	C₇H₈O	Strong phenolic and tobacco-like aroma (urine-like odor)	(Tan et al., 2025;Han et al., 2018)
33	Eugenol	C₁₀H₁₂O₂	Sweet, spicy, clove-like aroma with strong carnation and musk notes	(Huang and Li, 2018)
34	Ketones	Acetone	C₃H₆O	–	(Sun et al., 2022)
35	2-Butanone	C₄H₈O	–	(Sun et al., 2022)
36	3-Nonanone	C₉H₁₈O	–	(Sun et al., 2022)
37	Acetophenone	C₈H₈O	Cheesy, sweet, almond-like	(Tan et al., 2025; Han et al., 2018)
38	Alkanes	Isopentane	C₅H₁₂	Pleasant aromatic odor	(Cao et al., 2018)
39	Alkanes	Tetradecane	C₁₄H₃₀	Mild waxy odor	(Huang and Li, 2018)
40	Pentadecane	C₁₅H₃₂	–	(Han et al., 2018)
41	Hexadecane	C₁₆H₃₄	Mild waxy odor	(Han et al., 2018)
42	Eicosane	C₂₀H₄₂	–	(Han et al., 2018)
43		Triacontane	C₃₀H₆₂	–	(Han et al., 2018)
44	Farnesane	C₁₅H₂₆	–	(Han et al., 2018)
45	Aromatics	Naphthalene	C₁₀H₈	Spicy, tar-like odor	(Huang and Li, 2018)
46	Phenanthrene	C₁₄H₁₀	Spicy, tar-like odor	(Huang and Li, 2018)
47	Others	Styrene	C₈H₈O	–	(Duan et al., 2023)
48	trans-Squalene	C₃₀H₅₀	–	(Han et al., 2018)
49	Limonene	C₁₀H₁₆	Lemon-like aroma	(Ma et al., 2024)
50	α-Pinene	C₁₀H₁₆	Pine, coniferous, and resinous odor	(Duan et al., 2023)
51	2-Pentylfuran	C₉H₁₄O	Fruity, earthy, green, and vegetable-like aroma	(Ma et al., 2024)
52	Others	2,3,5,6-Tetramethylpyrazine	C₈H₁₂N	Musty odor	(Ma et al., 2024)
53	Dimethyl disulfide	C₂H₆S₂	Sulfurous, foul odor	(ChP, 2020)

Table 1. Volatile Chemical Components of G. elata

No.

Category

Example Compounds

Chemical Formula

Odor/Flavor Description

References

Aldehydes

Nonanal

C₉H₁₈O

Greasy fragrance

(Sun et al., 2022)

Hexanal

C₆H₁₂O

Floral, fruity fragrance

(Sun et al., 2022)

Heptanal

C₇H₁₄O

–

(Sun et al., 2022)

Hexadecanal

C₁₆H₃₂O

Cardboard-like odor

(Huang and Li, 2018)

Benzaldehyde

C₇H₆O

–

(Sun et al., 2022)

Phenylacetaldehyde

C₈H₈O

Hyacinth-like aroma

(Wang,et al.,2025; Sun et al., 2022)

2-Methylbutanal

C₅H₁₀O

Cocoa, almond-like odor

(Sun et al., 2022)

3-Methylbutanal

C₅H₁₀O

Chocolate, peach, and apple fragrances

(Li et al., 2025; Ma et al.,2024)

3-Methylthiopropionaldehyde

C₄H₈OS

Pungent, irritating odor

(Li et al., 2025)

Alcohols

Campesterol

C₂₈H₄₈O

–

(Zhan et al., 2016)

β-Sitosterol

C₂₉H₅₀O

–

(ChP, 2020)

Hexanol

C₆H₁₄O

–

(Sun et al., 2022)

Alcohols

Butanol

C₄H₁₀O

–

(Sun et al., 2022)

1-Octen-3-ol

C₈H₁₆O

–

(Duan,et al., 2023)

Terpinen-4-ol

C₁₀H₁₈O

–

(Duan,et al., 2023)

Phenethyl alcohol

C₈H₁₀O

Honey-like aroma

(Tan et al., 2025)

Isoamyl alcohol

C₅H₁₂O

Nail polish and greasy odor

(Tan et al., 2025)

Esters

Methyl palmitate

C₁₇H₃₄O

Waxy, fatty, iris-like odor

(Sun et al., 2022)

Ethyl palmitate

C₁₈H₃₆O₂

–

(Ma et al., 2024)

Ethyl linoleate

C₁₉H₃₄O₂

–

(Ma et al., 2024)

Acids

Acetic acid

C₂H₄O₂

–

(Han et al., 2018)

Hexanoic acid

C₆H₁₂O₂

Sweaty odor

(Han et al., 2018)

Nonanoic acid

C₉H₁₈O₂

–

(Han et al., 2018)

n-Hexadecanoic acid

C₁₆H₃₂O₂

–

(Ma et al., 2024)

1-Methoxyethyl hexadecanoate

C₁₉H₃₈O

–

(Zhan et al., 2016)

Linolenic acid

C₁₈H₃₀O₂

–

(Han et al., 2018)

Linoleic acid

C₁₈H₃₂O₂

–

(Zhan et al., 2016)

Acids

Palmitic acid

C₁₆H₃₂O₂

–

(Zhan et al., 2016)

Linoleic acid

C₁₈H₃₂O₂

Mild fatty odor

(Huang and Li, 2018)

Phenols

2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol

C₁₄H₂₂O

Phenolic odor

(Huang and Li, 2018)

4-Methylphenol

C₇H₈O

Narcissus, acacia, and mimosa-like fragrances

(Sun et al., 2022;)

p-Cresol

C₇H₈O

Strong phenolic and tobacco-like aroma (urine-like odor)

(Tan et al., 2025;Han et al., 2018)

Eugenol

C₁₀H₁₂O₂

Sweet, spicy, clove-like aroma with strong carnation and musk notes

(Huang and Li, 2018)

Ketones

Acetone

C₃H₆O

–

(Sun et al., 2022)

2-Butanone

C₄H₈O

–

(Sun et al., 2022)

3-Nonanone

C₉H₁₈O

–

(Sun et al., 2022)

Acetophenone

C₈H₈O

Cheesy, sweet, almond-like

(Tan et al., 2025; Han et al., 2018)

Alkanes

Isopentane

C₅H₁₂

Pleasant aromatic odor

(Cao et al., 2018)

Alkanes

Tetradecane

C₁₄H₃₀

Mild waxy odor

(Huang and Li, 2018)

Pentadecane

C₁₅H₃₂

–

(Han et al., 2018)

Hexadecane

C₁₆H₃₄

Mild waxy odor

(Han et al., 2018)

Eicosane

C₂₀H₄₂

–

(Han et al., 2018)

Triacontane

C₃₀H₆₂

–

(Han et al., 2018)

Farnesane

C₁₅H₂₆

–

(Han et al., 2018)

Aromatics

Naphthalene

C₁₀H₈

Spicy, tar-like odor

(Huang and Li, 2018)

Phenanthrene

C₁₄H₁₀

Spicy, tar-like odor

(Huang and Li, 2018)

Others

Styrene

C₈H₈O

–

(Duan et al., 2023)

trans-Squalene

C₃₀H₅₀

–

(Han et al., 2018)

Limonene

C₁₀H₁₆

Lemon-like aroma

(Ma et al., 2024)

α-Pinene

C₁₀H₁₆

Pine, coniferous, and resinous odor

(Duan et al., 2023)

2-Pentylfuran

C₉H₁₄O

Fruity, earthy, green, and vegetable-like aroma

(Ma et al., 2024)

Others

2,3,5,6-Tetramethylpyrazine

C₈H₁₂N

Musty odor

(Ma et al., 2024)

Dimethyl disulfide

C₂H₆S₂

Sulfurous, foul odor

(ChP, 2020)

**Table 2.** Flavor Extraction Techniques for *G. elata*
Category	Technique	Description	References
Traditional Techniques	Steam Distillation	Uses steam to carry volatile components from Gastrodia elata, followed by condensation and separation.	(Li et al., 2025)
Solvent Extraction	Employs organic solvents (e.g., ethanol, methanol) to extract flavor compounds.	(Li et al., 2019)
Modern Techniques	Supercritical CO₂ Extraction	Utilizes supercritical CO₂ as a solvent for high-efficiency and residue-free extraction, preserving volatile components.	(Han et al., 2018)
Headspace-GC/MS	Directly analyzes volatile components in processed Gastrodia elata using headspace sampling coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.	(Wang et al., 2025)
Solid-Phase Microextraction (SPME)	Adsorbs volatile components onto coated fibers, followed by GC-MS analysis for enrichment and identification.	(Wang et al., 2025)
Microwave-Assisted Extraction	Enhances extraction efficiency through microwave irradiation.	(Jaouhari et al., 2025)
Simultaneous Distillation-Extraction	Combines steam distillation and solvent extraction to simultaneously extract components.	(Huang and Li, 2018)

Table 2. Flavor Extraction Techniques for G. elata